Chapter 2 Forest And Wildlife Resources

Flora And Fauna In India

Our planet is home to millions of diverse living organisms, from microscopic life to large plants and animals. Humans are just one part of this complex ecological system, interdependent on other life forms and the environment for survival. The natural world, including plants, animals, and microorganisms, provides essential services like clean air, water, and fertile soil, which are fundamental to our existence. Forests are particularly vital in this system, serving as primary producers that support many other living beings.

India is exceptionally rich in biological diversity (biodiversity), boasting a vast array of unique flora (plants) and fauna (animals). While India is among the world's wealthiest nations in terms of known species, experts believe the actual number of species could be significantly higher, with many yet to be discovered.

The extensive variety of forest and wildlife resources is deeply interwoven with our daily lives, often taken for granted. However, in recent times, these precious resources have come under severe threat, primarily due to human insensitivity towards the environment.

Biodiversity

Biodiversity, or Biological Diversity, encompasses the immense variety of wildlife and cultivated species, showcasing diverse forms and functions. Despite this diversity, all living things are interconnected through complex networks of interdependencies within an ecological system. The richness of biodiversity is crucial for the health and functioning of the planet and its life support systems.

Conservation Of Forest And Wildlife In India

Given the alarming rate of decline in wildlife populations and forest cover, conservation efforts have become critically necessary. Conserving forests and wildlife is essential for several reasons:

• It preserves ecological diversity.
• It safeguards our vital life support systems (water, air, and soil).
• It helps maintain the genetic diversity of plants and animals, which is crucial for better species growth, breeding, and agricultural reliance (dependent on traditional crop varieties and maintaining aquatic biodiversity for fisheries).

In response to the rapid decline, conservationists in the 1960s and 1970s advocated for a national wildlife protection program. This led to the implementation of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act in 1972.

The Act included various provisions for protecting habitats and published a national list of protected species. Initially, the focus was on:

• Banning hunting of endangered species.
• Providing legal protection to their habitats.
• Restricting trade in wildlife.

Subsequently, both central and many state governments established national parks and wildlife sanctuaries. The central government also launched specific projects to protect gravely threatened animals, such as the tiger, one-horned rhinoceros, Kashmir stag (hangul), three types of crocodiles (fresh water, saltwater, Gharial), and the Asiatic lion. More recently, species like the Indian elephant, black buck (chinkara), great Indian bustard (godawan), and snow leopard have received full or partial legal protection nationwide against hunting and trade.

Project Tiger

The tiger is a keystone species, vital to the forest ecosystem's food web. Authorities recognised the drastic decline in the tiger population, which had fallen from an estimated 55,000 at the start of the 20th century to just 1,827 by 1973.

Major threats to tigers included poaching (especially for skins and bones used in traditional medicine, particularly in Asian countries), habitat destruction, depletion of their prey base, and growing human populations encroaching on their territory. With India and Nepal housing about two-thirds of the world's remaining tigers, they became prime targets for illegal trading and poaching.

In response, "Project Tiger" was launched in 1973. This became one of the world's most prominent wildlife campaigns. Tiger conservation efforts expanded beyond saving a single endangered species to focus on preserving entire biotypes (ecological regions) of significant size. Notable tiger reserves in India include Corbett National Park, Sunderbans National Park, Bandhavgarh National Park, Sariska Wildlife Sanctuary, Manas Tiger Reserve, and Periyar Tiger Reserve.

Modern conservation projects have broadened their scope to focus on protecting overall biodiversity rather than just a few key species. Increasingly, even insects are being included in conservation planning. Amendments to the Wildlife Act in 1980 and 1986 added hundreds of butterfly, moth, beetle, and one dragonfly species to the protected list. In a significant step in 1991, plants were also included for the first time, starting with six species.

Types And Distribution Of Forest And Wildlife Resources

Managing, controlling, and regulating India's vast forest and wildlife resources is a complex task. A significant portion of these resources is owned or managed by the government, primarily through the Forest Department. These are categorised as follows:

Reserved Forests

These are considered the most valuable forests from the perspective of conserving forest and wildlife resources. More than half of India's total forest land falls under this category. Access and activities in reserved forests are highly restricted to ensure maximum protection.

Protected Forests

These forests are declared by the Forest Department as areas protected from any further depletion. Almost one-third of the total forest area is classified as protected forest. While they receive protection, the restrictions on access and activities might be slightly less stringent than in reserved forests, though still regulated.

Unclassed Forests

This category includes all other forests and wastelands that do not fall under Reserved or Protected classifications. These lands can belong to either the government or private individuals and communities. Much of the forest area in the North-eastern states and parts of Gujarat are managed by local communities and are classified as unclassed forests.

Both Reserved and Protected forests are together referred to as permanent forest estates. These are maintained primarily for the purpose of producing timber and other forest products and for protective reasons (like soil conservation).

Madhya Pradesh has the largest area under permanent forests, with 75% of its total forest area classified as such. States like Jammu and Kashmir, Andhra Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, West Bengal, and Maharashtra have a large percentage of their total forest area designated as reserved forests. Bihar, Haryana, Punjab, Himachal Pradesh, Odisha, and Rajasthan have a larger proportion of their forests under the protected category compared to reserved forests.

Community And Conservation

While government efforts are crucial, conservation strategies have historically involved, and increasingly recognise the importance of, local communities. Conservation methods are not a new concept in India, especially for traditional communities who live within or near forests.

Sacred Groves

Nature worship has been an ancient belief system among many tribal communities, founded on the principle that all natural creations must be protected. This has led to the preservation of pristine forest patches known as Sacred Groves (believed to be dwelling places of gods and goddesses). These areas, often parts of larger forests, are left untouched by local people, with interference strictly prohibited.

Certain trees are revered; for example, the Mundas and Santhals of Chota Nagpur worship mahua and kadamba trees, while tribals in Odisha and Bihar worship tamarind and mango trees during weddings. Peepal and banyan trees are considered sacred by many across India.

Indian society's diverse cultures have unique traditional conservation methods. Springs, mountain peaks, plants, and animals are often ascribed sacred qualities and closely protected. Macaques and langurs around temples are often fed and treated as part of devotees. In Bishnoi villages in Rajasthan, blackbuck, chinkara, nilgai, and peacocks are seen as integral community members and are unharmed by anyone.

Joint Forest Management (JFM)

In some areas, local communities actively participate in conserving habitats alongside government officials, understanding that their long-term survival depends on it. Villagers in Sariska Tiger Reserve have used the Wildlife Protection Act to oppose mining. In many places, villagers have taken direct control, protecting habitats and refusing government intervention.

The Chipko movement in the Himalayas successfully prevented deforestation in several areas and demonstrated the success of community-led afforestation using native species. Efforts to revive traditional conservation practices and develop ecological farming methods (like the Beej Bachao Andolan and Navdanya, promoting diversified crop production without synthetic chemicals) are becoming more widespread.

The Joint Forest Management (JFM) programme in India serves as a good formal example of involving local communities in the management and restoration of degraded forests. Formally established in 1988 with Odisha passing the first resolution, JFM relies on forming local village-level institutions that undertake protection activities, usually on degraded forest lands managed by the Forest Department. In return, members of these communities receive intermediary benefits like non-timber forest produce and a share in the timber harvested from successfully protected areas.

Experiences of both environmental destruction and restoration in India highlight a clear lesson: local communities must be involved in natural resource management. However, placing local communities at the center of decision-making requires further progress. Economic and developmental activities should be people-centric, environmentally friendly, and economically beneficial for all.